Lithium Mining in the Atacama Salt Flats, Chile: How the Strive for Environmentally Sustainable Vehicles is Doing More Harm Than Good

Final Report:

Located in northern Chile, spanning an area of a little over 40,000 square miles (roughly the size of Ohio), is the Atacama Desert. It is considered by many to be one of the driest deserts in the world, accumulating on average 0.47 inches of rainfall annually, with some areas not receiving a single drop of rain for hundreds of years.[1] The dryness of its landscape is comparable to the planet Mars, so much so that NASA tested its Mars Rover on it.[2] The appearance of the desert also resembles that of Mars, with its red/orange tint of soil and tall mountains. Despite its arid conditions, the Atacama Desert is home to over 500 distinct species and a vast number of indigenous groups who have resided there for millennia. The desert also has the perfect conditions for mining certain metals, the most popular currently being lithium. Unfortunately, the process of mining lithium has proven to come with adverse consequences, and the Atacama Desert and its inhabitants have fallen victim to the metal’s malignant exploitation.

Lithium mining notoriously requires an extensive amount of water, which can cause problems in one of the driest deserts in the world. Lithium can be mined on salt flats, and in Chile this takes place in the Salar de Atacama, or the Salt Flats of Atacama, the largest salt flat in the country. The people of the Atacama Desert, also referred to as Atacameños, fear the effects the mining will have on their land. Atacameños have been inhabiting the area since 7,000 BCE, and although their cultures have changed over time, the desert remains sacred to them.[3] The extensive water supply needed currently for lithium mining has caused the Atacameños to see a decrease in their wildlife, as well as a decrease in their own water supplies. The people have made it clear that they are not willing to sacrifice their land for these companies to operate.

Many scientists are still split on whether lithium mining is harming the deserts ecosystem, but the Atacameños who reside there see the negative affects firsthand. With the boom of the electric car industry and the increased demand for lithium batteries, these negative effects have only been exacerbated. Why is an industry considered as “sustainable” causing great harm to the Atacama Desert and its inhabitants? Is it because lithium mining is inherently harmful? Are the regulations on mining too loose and minimal? Are the companies mining for lithium even following these regulations? It is through the negligence of the powerful lithium mining companies, and their violation of environmental regulations, that causes the greatest threat to the desert’s environment and its inhabitants.

Before delving deeper into the argument, this paper will first explain how lithium is mined and why its demand is growing every year. Only then can environmental violations be discussed. Regarding the violations, the focus will be on Sociedad Química y Minera, SQM for short, one of the largest lithium producers in the world. It is because of SQM’s disregard for life that the Atacameños are witnessing their native land being destroyed. The people are seeing decreasing numbers of wildlife, vegetation, and water resources. Although their voices are not heard as loud as SQM’s, they are doing everything within their power to save their home. The exploitation of the Atacameños and their land is not a rare event for an indigenous community to experience. In fact, events similar to these are occurring in the United States right now. This paper will conclude with a comparison of the Atacameños and the indigenous groups of Nevada, to demonstrate that the mistreatment of indigenous communities due to lithium mining is an international issue.

Lithium Background

Extracting lithium is an expensive and time-consuming process that requires millions of gallons of water. Although pure lithium cannot be found in nature, it is present in salts and other compounds. The compound most companies, including SQM, produce is lithium carbonate. In the Salar de Atacama, lithium can be found in underground brines, which are mostly comprised of water. This brine is pumped into evaporation ponds, as shown in the image above, and left exposed to the sun for what could be a few months or a few years, depending on the desired lithium concentration. Once all the water contents evaporate from the brine, it is sent to a facility for lithium extraction, where lithium carbonate and other compounds can be produced.[4] In order to produce 1 ton of lithium, 500,000 gallons of water are needed. In 2020, SQM produced 72,200 US tons of lithium carbonate.[5] That is around 36.1 billion gallons of water used annually by SQM to meet their quota. If this number is not alarming enough, SQM plans to increase its output of lithium carbonate to almost 200,000 US tons by the end of 2022.[6] Why do they need to more than double their output?

The need for the increase in output is a result of the growing sustainable energy market, specifically when it comes to cars. Lithium is used to produce lithium-ion batteries that power the electric cars. On average, an electric car requires 44 pounds of lithium, and in certain models, like the Tesla 85-KWH model, 112 pounds are required.[7] Although the first modern-age electric car was produced in the 90s, it was not until the mid 2010s that the demand for them grew exponentially. This boom in electric cars can be accredited to Tesla, who was one of the first companies to make an affordable fully electric car. As well as the Toyota Prius, whose hybrid feature let its consumers have the best of both worlds with its electric and gasoline powered engine. Since it is in the government’s best interest to slow the effects of climate change, they offer tax incentives for consumers who decide to purchase an electric vehicle. Another huge factor that influenced the demand for lithium batteries is climate change. Much of society has become increasingly environmentally conscious due to the dooming nature of climate change and are trying to reduce their personal carbon footprint. A combination of all these factors has caused the demand for lithium batteries to skyrocket, which lithium mining companies have had to respond to by increasing their output.

Extracting lithium is an expensive and time-consuming process that requires millions of gallons of water. Although pure lithium cannot be found in nature, it is present in salts and other compounds. The compound most companies, including SQM, produce is lithium carbonate. In the Salar de Atacama, lithium can be found in underground brines, which are mostly comprised of water. This brine is pumped into evaporation ponds, as shown in the image above, and left exposed to the sun for what could be a few months or a few years, depending on the desired lithium concentration. Once all the water contents evaporate from the brine, it is sent to a facility for lithium extraction, where lithium carbonate and other compounds can be produced.[4] In order to produce 1 ton of lithium, 500,000 gallons of water are needed. In 2020, SQM produced 72,200 US tons of lithium carbonate.[5] That is around 36.1 billion gallons of water used annually by SQM to meet their quota. If this number is not alarming enough, SQM plans to increase its output of lithium carbonate to almost 200,000 US tons by the end of 2022.[6] Why do they need to more than double their output?

The need for the increase in output is a result of the growing sustainable energy market, specifically when it comes to cars. Lithium is used to produce lithium-ion batteries that power the electric cars. On average, an electric car requires 44 pounds of lithium, and in certain models, like the Tesla 85-KWH model, 112 pounds are required.[7] Although the first modern-age electric car was produced in the 90s, it was not until the mid 2010s that the demand for them grew exponentially. This boom in electric cars can be accredited to Tesla, who was one of the first companies to make an affordable fully electric car. As well as the Toyota Prius, whose hybrid feature let its consumers have the best of both worlds with its electric and gasoline powered engine. Since it is in the government’s best interest to slow the effects of climate change, they offer tax incentives for consumers who decide to purchase an electric vehicle. Another huge factor that influenced the demand for lithium batteries is climate change. Much of society has become increasingly environmentally conscious due to the dooming nature of climate change and are trying to reduce their personal carbon footprint. A combination of all these factors has caused the demand for lithium batteries to skyrocket, which lithium mining companies have had to respond to by increasing their output.

SQM’s Environmental Violations

SQM has strict quotas regarding how much brine they can extract, but in 2013, the boom of the lithium industry saw them slipping into some malicious practices. Three years later, these practices came to light and SQM was charged for withdrawing more brine than they were allowed. These charges were filed by the Chilean SMA environmental regulator and came with a fine of up to 22.2 million dollars. How could such a large company get away with this violation for three whole years? Were officials even paying attention to the data being reported by the company?

As it turns out, the mining company was also charged with reporting misleading information to officials regarding the nearby ecosystem and water extractions.[8] The purpose of these reports is to monitor the surrounding areas and make sure any negative impacts get thoroughly investigated and dealt with. Failure to disclose this kind of information could be helping create irreparable damage to the desert’s ecosystem. In response to these charges, SQM created a 25-million-dollar plan to get their operations back in line with regulations. Although initially accepted by authorities in 2019, a year later it was decided that the plan needed to be drastically improved and the decision was reversed.[9]

Environmental Impacts

The Atacama Desert is a historically unresearched area, causing a lot of the effects originating from the environmental violations to go unnoticed. In 2008, a microbiologist by the name of Cristina Dorador took matters into her own hands and published her study on life in the desert. In her research she found that microbes located in the brine are an important part of the native flamingo species’ diet, which consists of brine shrimp. With SQMs increase of brine extraction, flamingos were seeing a decrease in their food supply, causing smaller numbers of the species to migrate to the flats. The flamingo species of the Atacama Desert have been deemed vulnerable since 1996 and seeing many of them disappear like this was cause for concern.[10] Had SQM, given authorities accurate reporting’s of the nearby wildlife, this problem could have been mitigated, or even prevented.

In 2019, a satellite image taken of the Salar de Atacama found that, “…drought conditions had worsened, soil moisture and vegetation declined, and daytime temperatures rose.”[11] Among the declining vegetation were native Algarrobo trees, some of which SQM had pledged and failed to monitor in 2013.[12] To give an exact number, 32.4% of the trees located on SQM’s property died.[13] Their deep roots which extend underground, make these trees profoundly resistant to the arid conditions of the desert. The decline of their population should have been an early indicator to the decreasing water levels. Because of misinformation provided by the company to the state, the decline of the native trees was persistent for two years after, until authorities finally caught wind of the violations and filed for charges.[14]

Similar to the wildlife and vegetation of the desert, its human inhabitants have not been spared of the detrimental effects caused by the mining. Many communities residing near SQM’s mines have reported a shrinkage in their water resources.[15] In a study done by David F. Boutt, it was found that two saltwater lagoons in the Salar de Atacama had seen a decrease in surface area between the years 2003 and 2015.[16] The cause of this decrease can be explained by another study done in 2016 to 2017, published by Eduardo Bitran, who discovered that there was more brine being extracted from the salt flat than could be naturally replenished.[17] This disruption of balance can cause ripple effects that extend throughout the whole ecosystem. Located not too far from the Atacameños, is an indigenous community called Pastos Chicos who, because of the nearby lithium mines, need useable water to be trucked in. With the drastic decrease in water levels going on in the desert, many indigenous communities are facing the same fate as the Pastos Chicos.

How the Indigenous Communities Responded

The image above illustrates the indigenous community’s resistance and disapproval to the way SQM operates its mines in the Salt Flats of Atacama. The protest took place in 2018 and was organized by the Consejo de Pueblos Atacameños, or CPA for short, who have been clashing with the company since 2007.[18] The focal point of the image is a banner that reads, “MUERTE EN EL SALAR DE ATACAMA,” which translates to, “DEATH IN THE SALTS FLATS OF ATACAMA.” The sign calls out SQM, the company responsible for exporting the most amount of lithium out of Chile and degrading the ecosystem of the salt flat. Behind the banner is a visible roadblock taking place in protest of an agreement that was reached between SQM and CORFO, a Chilean development agency. The agreement granted SQM the ability to mine more lithium, among other things.[19]

The community’s anger is shown more clearly when further analyzing the image. The roadblock protest primarily affected commercial vehicles, such as box and trailer trucks, suggesting that the goal of the protest was to block transportation to the nearby lithium mines. It illustrates that the only way the community thought its voices would be heard is if they forced SQM to listen. People within the crowd held bright colorful flags called the Wiphala flag, which represents the indigenous communities of the Andes.[20] The flag symbolizes the united front formed by all the communities of the region, which aims at protecting their native land. The anger of the Atacameños is supported and felt by its neighbors. They expressed their anger in not only actions, but also words, claiming that death is upon the Salt Flats of Atacama. The Atacameños were tired of being ignored.

The organization behind the protest, CPA, is comprised of 18 indigenous communities who have been fighting to stop the destruction of their homeland for over a decade now.[21] They filed multiple lawsuits against SQM, but it wasn’t until 2016 that the company had to face the consequences of their actions, when the state filed its own charges regarding the company. The CPA saw their first major victory in 2020, when the state sided with them and reversed the acceptance of SQM’s 25-million-dollar plan, in exchange for a much tougher one. The CPA demanded the plan be more oriented at fixing the environmental issues caused by the company. Apart of the plan was a 15 million dollar a year investment that the company promised would go solely to the communities. The funds which were meant to ease conflict between the two parties, only strained their relationship further, as the CPA spitefully rejected the offer. The president of the CPA at the time, Sergio Cubillos, claimed that SQM was only concerned about their public image and that this situation, “… is about more than just the money.”[22]

Nevada’s “White Gold Rush”

The mistreatment of indigenous communities caused by lithium mining is an international issue that has made its way to Nevada, US. Located in Humboldt County, 245 miles north of Reno, is an area of the Nevada desert called Thatcher Pass. A Canadian lithium mining company by the name of Lithium Americas is in the early stages of building the largest lithium mine in the United States in this area. Although it may seem like a small feat to achieve in a country that only has one working lithium mine, some speculate it will be one of the largest mines in the world. In 2021, it was discovered that a great massacre of the Paiute and Shoshone people occurred here, which resulted in 31 mortalities.[23] This discovery saw members of the native communities of Nevada suing the company in order to stop the project from desecrating a native burial ground.[24] A few months later on September 3rd, the judge overseeing the lawsuit sided against the natives and ruled that Lithium Americans can continue on with their project in Thatcher Pass.[25]

Events and discussions leading up to the approval of this project left the native communities of Nevada in the shadows. In the state of Nevada there are 27 federally recognized native tribes. The CEO of Lithium Americas claimed in an interview that they had consulted with only one of the 27 tribes, regarding the mining projects.[26] Two other tribes were notified of the project but had not been consulting with the company. The remainder of the communities had to jump through hoops to find information about it. In an interview done for the Oregon Broadcasting Network, Michon Eben, a plaintiff in the lawsuit brought against Lithium Americans, claimed that the first piece of evidence his tribe found about the project was on the Bureau of Land Management’s website. In order to even find this evidence, Eben said, “…you had to look and go through a lot of documents.” The neglect of native communities by greedy corporations, like Lithium Americas and SQM, is an international issue that is seeing the decimation of ecosystems and cultural lands. These events must be prevented for the lithium industry to truly live up to its claims of sustainability.

Conclusion

Unsurprisingly, the process of mining a metal that is heavily reliant on water can have detrimental effects to an ecosystem many, including NASA, consider to be as dry as Mars. As previously mentioned, to produce 1 US ton of lithium, 500,000 gallons of water are required. In the years leading up to the lithium industry boom, the outputs of companies like SQM were most likely not high enough to disrupt the balance of the ecosystem. When the industry saw an exponential rise in demand following the popularization of electric cars, SQM responded by increasing its brine extractions at a rate that caused them to breach contracts with the state. This led to the company being charged for the violations, but the damage to the ecosystem was already done. The Salts Flats of Atacama and its indigenous inhabitants fell victim to the company’s malevolent ways.

The decline of wildlife, vegetation, and water levels can all be pinpointed to one common factor: SQM’s negligent running of its lithium mine. Part of the declining wildlife are native flamingo species, who’s diets consist of brine shrimp. The minerals found in the brine shrimp are important parts of the flamingo’s diets and have been deteriorating in size due to SQM’s excessive brine extractions. Among the various declining species are native tress called Algarrobo trees. SQM promised to monitor the trees located nearby their property, but failed, causing 32.4% of them to die. Because the roots of the Algarrobo tree reach far underground, their deaths should have been an indicator to the company that the water levels of the salt flat were dipping. In fact, they were dipping so low, a hydrological study of the area discovered that more water was leaving the salt flat than it could naturally restore. The Atacameños saw the ecosystem of their native land deteriorating and demanded the company change its ways. Over a decade since the first conflicts between SQM and the Atacameños, the indigenous communities finally convinced the state to side with them and are seeing their first victory of many to get lithium mining back to being a sustainable resource.

As evident in the case of Lithium Americas versus the native communities in Nevada, the exploitation of indigenous communities for lithium mining is an international issue that needs to be resolved. There are a multitude of ways to prevent this issue from occurring, and one of the most important ones is for the companies to consult directly with the indigenous communities. A substantial amount of the conflicts that arose between the companies and the natives, stemmed from the fact that they were left out of conversations concerning the ways in which the mines operate. Regarding the Salt Flats of Atacama, a reduction of brine extraction is essential for the ecosystem to restore its balance. Scientists suggest companies like SQM invest in more water mining technology, which would reduce the use of brine without disrupting the current output of lithium.[27] Lithium has the potential to push the world into a new era of sustainable technology, but it is the responsibility of the companies to ensure that entire ecosystems are not being wiped out in the process.

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[1] M. Özgür Nevres I, “Top 10 Driest Places on Earth,” Our Planet, November 9, 2015, https://ourplnt.com/driest-places/.

[2] Abigail Tabor, “Mars Rover Tests Driving, Drilling and Detecting Life in the Desert,” NASA (NASA, March 11, 2017), https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ames/mars-rover-tests-driving-drilling-and-detecting-life-in-chile-s-high-desert.

[3] Zoe Baillargeon, “The Atacameños: People of the Desert,” Patagonia Tours Travel, Chile, Argentina, Torres del Paine, Hiking – Cascada Expediciones (Cascada Expediciones, June 16, 2021), https://www.cascada.travel/blog/the-atacamenos-people-of-the-desert.

[4] Entire paragraph explaining process of lithium mining. Kimberly Marshall, “What Is Lithium Extraction and How Does It Work?,” Samco Tech, February 12, 2020, https://www.samcotech.com/what-is-lithium-extraction-and-how-does-it-work/.

[5] “Top 5 Largest Lithium Mining Companies in the World,” Mining Technology (Verdict Media, August 26, 2021), https://www.mining-technology.com/features/top-5-largest-lithium-companies/.

[6] Number converted from metric ton. Reuters Staff, “Chile’s SQM Posts Jump in Lithium Sales, Fast-Tracks Atacama Expansion,” Reuters (Thomson Reuters, May 20, 2021), https://www.reuters.com/article/chile-lithium-sqm/chiles-sqm-posts-jump-in-lithium-sales-fast-tracks-atacama-expansion-idUSL2N2N63AI.

[7] Todd C Frankel and Peter Whoriskey, “TOSSED ASIDE IN THE ‘WHITE GOLD’ RUSH,” The Washington Post (WP Company, December 19, 2016), https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/business/batteries/tossed-aside-in-the-lithium-rush/.

[8] Entire paragraph above cited from here as well. Reuters Staff, “Chilean Regulator Draws up Environmental Charges against SQM: Reports,” Reuters (Thomson Reuters, December 3, 2016), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sqm-charges/chilean-regulator-draws-up-environmental-charges-against-sqm-reports-idUSKBN13S0MK.

[9] Last 2 sentences. Dave Sherwood, “Chile Indigenous Group Asks Regulators to Suspend Lithium Miner SQM’s Permits,” Reuters (Thomson Reuters, September 13, 2021), https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/chile-indigenous-group-asks-regulators-suspend-lithium-miner-sqms-permits-2021-09-13/.

[10] Entire paragraph. Ian Morse, “Chile’s New Constitution Could Rewrite the Story of Lithium Mining,” Quartz (Quartz, December 22, 2020), https://qz.com/1948663/chiles-new-constitution-could-rewrite-the-fate-of-lithium-mining/.

[11] Ian Morse, “Chile’s New Constitution Could Rewrite the Story of Lithium Mining,” Quartz (Quartz, December 22, 2020), https://qz.com/1948663/chiles-new-constitution-could-rewrite-the-fate-of-lithium-mining/.

[12] Dave Sherwood, “A Water Fight in Chile’s Atacama Raises Questions over Lithium Mining,” Reuters (Thomson Reuters, October 18, 2018), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-chile-lithium-insight/a-water-fight-in-chiles-atacama-raises-questions-over-lithium-mining-idUSKCN1MS1L8.

[13] Wenjuan Liu, Datu B. Agusdinata, and Soe W. Myint, “Spatiotemporal Patterns of Lithium Mining and Environmental Degradation in the Atacama Salt Flat, Chile,” International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 80 (2019): pp. 145-156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2019.04.016.

[14] Last sentences before previous end note. Dave Sherwood, “A Water Fight in Chile’s Atacama Raises Questions over Lithium Mining,” Reuters (Thomson Reuters, October 18, 2018), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-chile-lithium-insight/a-water-fight-in-chiles-atacama-raises-questions-over-lithium-mining-idUSKCN1MS1L8.

[15] Ian Morse, “Chile’s New Constitution Could Rewrite the Story of Lithium Mining,” Quartz (Quartz, December 22, 2020), https://qz.com/1948663/chiles-new-constitution-could-rewrite-the-fate-of-lithium-mining/.

[16] Todd C Frankel and Peter Whoriskey, “TOSSED ASIDE IN THE ‘WHITE GOLD’ RUSH,” The Washington Post (WP Company, December 19, 2016), https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/business/batteries/tossed-aside-in-the-lithium-rush/.

[17] [17] Ian Morse, “Chile’s New Constitution Could Rewrite the Story of Lithium Mining,” Quartz (Quartz, December 22, 2020), https://qz.com/1948663/chiles-new-constitution-could-rewrite-the-fate-of-lithium-mining/.

[18] Staff, “Atacama, Chile,” Earthworks, 2019, https://earthworks.org/stories/atacama-chile-lithium/.

[19] Last two sentences Felipe Iturrieta, “Update: Chile’s CORFO, SQM Strike Deal in Lithium Dispute,” Reuters (Thomson Reuters, January 17, 2018), https://www.reuters.com/article/sqm-arbitration/update-1-chiles-corfo-sqm-strike-deal-in-lithium-dispute-idUSL1N1PC2D6.

[20] “Wiphala,” Wiphala | Ministerio de Defensa del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia, accessed December 13, 2021, http://www.mindef.gob.bo/mindef/node/169.

[21] The CPA’s website. “Consejo De Pueblos Atacameños,” CONSEJO DE PUEBLOS ATACAMEOS, accessed December 13, 2021, http://www.lickanantay.com/#!/-consejo-pueblos-atacamenos/.

[22] Rest of paragraph. Dave Sherwood, “Inside Lithium Giant SQM’s Struggle to Win over Indigenous Communities in Chile’s Atacama,” Reuters (Thomson Reuters, January 15, 2021), https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN29K1DB.

[23] Allison Frost, “Tribes and Environmentalists Continue to Push Back on a Lithium Mining Operation,” OPB (Oregon Public Broadcasting Network, October 7, 2021), https://www.opb.org/article/2021/10/07/tribes-environmentalists-oppose-lithium-mining-operation/.

[24] Whole paragraph. Scott Sonner, “Tribes: New Evidence Proves Massacre Was at Nevada Mine Site,” OPB (Oregon Public Broadcasting Network, October 5, 2021), https://www.opb.org/article/2021/10/05/tribes-new-evidence-proves-massacre-was-at-nevada-mine-site/.

[25] Ernest Scheyder, “Native Americans Lose Bid to Halt Digging at Nevada Lithium Mine Site,” Reuters (Thomson Reuters, September 3, 2021), https://www.reuters.com/legal/litigation/native-americans-lose-bid-halt-digging-nevada-lithium-mine-site-2021-09-03/.

[26] Kirk Siegler, “These Tribal Activists Want Biden to Stop a Planned Lithium Mine on Their Sacred Land,” NPR (NPR, September 2, 2021), https://www.npr.org/2021/09/02/1031726626/these-tribal-activists-want-biden-to-stop-a-planned-lithium-mine-on-their-sacred.

[27] Ian Morse, “Chile’s New Constitution Could Rewrite the Story of Lithium Mining,” Quartz (Quartz, December 22, 2020), https://qz.com/1948663/chiles-new-constitution-could-rewrite-the-fate-of-lithium-mining/.

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