The American Cyanamid Superfund Site: How Industrial Prosperity Came at a Cost to Local Health in Bound Brook, NJ (1915 – Present)

This video offers a brief overview of the American Cyanamid Superfund site and its lasting impact on Bound Brook.

I. Introduction

On a humid summer afternoon, sometime in the mid 1930s, a group of young boys waded into the Raritan River in Bound Brook, New Jersey. The river shimmered under the sun, making it impossible to resist jumping in to cool off in its waters. The boys were warned by their parents not to stray too far and to avoid going too close to the chemical plant just down the river. They didn’t fully comprehend why. The plant’s smokestacks rose higher than any other building in the area and they covered the skies in a vast smelly haze. The air had a chemical tang, and it could be carried miles away at times. The water felt cool and inviting but it was anything but safe. When they surfaced again, their skin and hair were tinted in a peculiar shade of purple.[1] Unbeknownst to them, they had just gone for a swim in what was essentially an open toxic dump.

Scenes like this were common back then. In fact, it was seen as acceptable and part of everyday life. It was the price to pay for industrial progress. The Calco Chemical Division in Bound Brook, later part of the American Cyanamid Company, which was actually in Bridgewater township just outside and west of Bound Brook, was a major manufacturer of dyes and other chemicals and eventually contributed greatly to the World War II effort. Calco had been dumping its waste into the Raritan River which formed the southern boundary of its premises. The lack of regulation meant that the toxic dumping would continue without interference until at least the 1940s.

Since the early 20th century, the plant provided stable employment and became a defining landmark for the towns of Bound Brook and Bridgewater. Yet, this story of economic success in the region has masked an expanding environmental problem. Bound Brook is a historically industrial town that was home to a working-class immigrant population. Around this time, they were mostly foreign-born Eastern Europeans. Much of the borough of Bound Brook, especially downtown, and the site where the plant was located are in a floodplain, prone to major flooding. Over the decades this area has seen multiple flooding events. As waste continued to pile in unlined lagoons it threatened the surrounding neighborhoods during flood events which leaked toxins such as benzene into the Raritan and into residential areas. This created a serious concern from local residents over their long-term health. The site was declared a Superfund site by the EPA in the early 80s, requiring long term cleanup due to the complexity of the site and toxic waste found. While significant cleanup and assessment efforts have been made, the site’s full historical impact is not fully known.

The story of the American Cyanamid plant reveals how decades of unregulated industrial activity in combination with insufficient regulation, created lasting environmental damage and persistent health risks for the Bound Brook community, which today is mostly Latino immigrants. Chemical waste discharged directly into the Raritan River, the waste leaking out from unlined lagoons, and repeated flooding spread toxic contamination far past the plant and into this community. These conditions raise important questions: what kind of impacts have this community faced on their health? How have they responded? Residents were exposed to hazardous substances, some of which are known carcinogens, leaving them with uncertain long term health effects. The American Cyanamid plant located in Bound Brook because the town’s working-class population and lack of political influence made it a convenient site for polluting with minimal resistance. This combination of demographic vulnerability and weak regulation allowed decades of industrial pollution to accumulate, producing long-term environmental damage and persistent health risks that the community continues to confront today.

The pages that follow trace the development of this environmental crisis and its long-term effects on the Bound Brook community. The narrative begins with the early history of the Calco plant, placing its operations within the broader industrial growth of central New Jersey and introducing the people who lived and worked alongside it. From there, the paper examines the forms of toxic pollution produced on the site and the ways repeated flooding carried contaminants beyond the plant’s premises. The analysis then turns to the environmental problems that emerged as these wastes accumulated, followed by a discussion of the long term health concerns that residents have faced as a result. Finally, the study considers how the community and the government responded to these conditions, revealing how the legacy of the plant continues to shape Bound Brook’s environment and public health landscape today.

II. Background and Demographics

In the early twentieth century Bound Brook, New Jersey was an established community with a growing industry. Just outside the border to the west in Bridgewater, where the plant was located, was not yet transformed into the industrial corner of the larger suburban community that it is today, being mostly rural and agrarian.[2] Bound Brook was still quite small, but its local government advertised the town as “a place to dwell”, the same as the name of a book they wrote for that purpose and painting it as the ideal place to live. Bound Brook was a rising industrial hub due to its unique strategic value. Rail networks and the Delaware and Raritan River canal that forms the town’s southern boundary were what fueled industrial growth as many major manufacturers had already established themselves here. The town appealed to both working class people as well as commuters for these reasons as well as the ability to easily own a home thanks to the backing of the Bound Brook Building Loan Association.[3] Bound Brook was on the rise and soon other industries would call this place home, including Calco.

This part of the state underwent a transformation that mirrored broader patterns of industrialization across the northeastern United States due to being in an advantageous location. The Raritan River and two major railroads connected Bound Brook to two major markets quite easily, that being New York and Philadelphia.[4] It also allowed for product to easily be exported overseas to aid in the war effort for WWI by supplying dyes. Another reason this location was chosen was due to backlash from residents of Somerville, the politically affluent county seat, over fears of pollution. They complained of unpleasant and hazardous solid, liquid, and gaseous waste that resulted from manufacturing coal tar dyes, and the company was subsequently denied permission to expand their operations further.[5] In 1915 the owners of Calco relocated to a plot of land just outside of Bound Brook that was more isolated yet has far easier access to the rail lines and the river.[6]

In 1929, Calco was acquired by the American Cyanamid Company, and became known as the Calco Chemical Division of the American Cyanamid Company. [7] At its height the plant used 20 million gallons of water and burned 700 tons of coal on a daily basis.[8] The plant produced a wide range of products in its earlier years and was instrumental in aiding the war effort for both WWI and WWII. Calco pioneered the large-scale production of sulfa (sulfonamide) drugs which were the first effective antibiotics available to wounded troops in WWII before penicillin. It also played a major role in producing dyes for camouflage military uniforms in both wars, as well as chemicals used in explosives, synthetic rubber, aviation fuel, and vehicle lubricants.[9] Calco quickly became a staple of this industrial corridor.

The Calco Company employed over five thousand employees, both men and women and was a top employer for immigrant groups in the 1940s. Among them were African Americans, Puerto Ricans, Italians, and other Eastern European groups. It’s safe to assume that most lived in Bound Brook due to its proximity to the plant and the local government’s push to appeal to the working class. Today, Bound Brook is still home to a large immigrant population, but it has shifted to a majority Hispanic population. The downtown is a resilient community with a mix of different Latino cultures. Notably, it is also the part of the town closest to the Raritan. Bound Brook is made up of a majority Latino population of 56% and nearly 37% of the total population are foreign born.[10] A report by the New Jersey Department of State notes that Bound Brook currently sits at a population of 12,000 people and is a “relatively working-class community” that is “not as wealthy at Somerset County”. It also notes that housing tends to be older and more affordable than anywhere else in the county.[11] This is important to consider because it is indicative of a historically vulnerable community that has had little political power compared to the rest of the county. Bound Brook was treated as a sacrifice zone within a wealthy county where industrial activity, environmental risk, and lower cost housing would all be concentrated while wealth and newer development could flourish elsewhere, as seen today, and even back then with Somerville’s actions.

III. Environmental Damage

Environmental pollution was the price to pay for industrial prosperity. It was a sign of a thriving local economy. Within a “manufacturing society” In the twentieth century most of the population saw some pollution as acceptable and “inevitable”. When they thought of the environment it was mostly reserved for the conservation of wildlife and the wilderness.[12] The contamination of the environment in which they lived was hardly thought of. Because of this sentiment, there were no laws or regulations that prevented companies from dumping waste however it was convenient. In the company’s earlier years, Calco could be best described as a “typical chemical manufacturer of its era”, leaving the air with an “awful sulfur odor and tallow pale”.[13] The sky smelled like rotten eggs and looked slightly yellow from all the smog and haze because of the chemical reactions needed to produce dyes. Today, this is unheard of and would never be tolerated.

In the 1930s Calco experienced criticism from local and state authorities for dumping its chemical waste directly into the Raritan River. Just outside the plant to the immediate west was Cuckel’s Brook, a small stream that flowed straight into the Raritan. Here is where Calco discharged a lot of raw, unprocessed waste through the 1930s.[14] In 1940 the New Jersey Department of Health forced the company to open its first wastewater treatment plant, which neutralized the waste and reduced its visible color. Here is where it also greatly expanded its use of waste lagoons to store liquid and solid waste on its premises.[15] The waste stored here was notoriously not easily degradable, impacting the quality of the water near the plant.[16] The company chose to manage and disguise pollution on site rather than prevent it altogether.

In total, there was a total of 27 waste impoundments each containing various chemicals. They were unlined, meaning that waste could seep into the soil. A 1990 health assessment estimated that 800,000 tons of waste was stored in these lagoons. This threatens groundwater and most notably that Brunswick aquifer that was directly below.[17] This is a major source of drinking water for Somerset County and surrounding areas. Decades of manufacturing at the site left the soil and groundwater contaminated with volatile organic compounds (VOCs), semi volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and other heavy metals.[18] Impoundments 1 and 2 are considered the most hazardous, especially due to being close to the Raritan River. These contain tars and sludges that are viscous and rubbery.[19]

Upon discovering dangerous levels of contamination in the soil, the EPA designated the 575-acre site of the plant as a Superfund site in 1983.[20] This site required extensive, long term cleanup efforts. The EPA notes that since the early 80s, the American Cyanamid Company managed to clean up about 80 acres and over one million cubic yards of toxic waste from the impoundments. They also treated groundwater through its own pumping wells to mitigate the spread of contaminated groundwater.[21] However, some of their actions or proposed actions were the subject of controversy by locals. The company slowly declined and changed owners a few times until all manufacturing ceased in 1999. Most of the buildings that once stood were demolished the following year. Today the site is owned by pharma giant Pfizer, which took responsibility for its cleanup efforts.[22] Not much remains besides the scars of its industrial past, visible in the forms of the various lagoons from an aerial view. Some land has since been approved for redevelopment where a shopping center and ballpark stand today, but the risks to the health of Bound Brook still persist.

VI. Long Term Health Risks

Flooding is another major source of concern by residents. The plant itself and residents of Bound Brook have experienced several torrential storms throughout the decades that have devastated the area time and again. Their main worry comes from the possibility of contaminants escaping the site and being carried right into their communities, especially downtown Bound Brook. The impact of Tropical Storm Irene is one that lives in the memory of the community, as they saw about 7 inches of rain in the span of 48 hours, causing a sea of destruction in its path. The site was also damaged by the floodwater, with water rising to about five feet high in some parts around certain impoundments. However, malfunctioning flood control berms kept the water from draining out.[23] In the aftermath, Tar waste from impoundments 1 and 2 overflowed the berms and an EPA study concluded that flood and surface water samples did in fact contains VOCs and other metals, but it wasn’t enough to cause much of an impact.[24] The community got lucky this time, but it still leaves a lot of concern. One of the more recent natural disasters, Hurricane Ida in 2021, reminded the community that this is a present and future problem. Again, the storm exposed that the site was still vulnerable to floodwater, finding it to have been significantly impacted. This problem is projected to worsen, especially now with the threat of intensifying storms due to climate change.[25] Under the threat of extreme weather, there is a higher likelihood of legacy contamination into the Raritan River, Bound Brook, and other surrounding communities.

Theres been a lot of talk of coal tars, dyes, and their resulting toxics. But what makes them so toxic? Many of the impounds such as 1 and 2 contain Benzene, which today is a widely known carcinogen. Exposure to other VOCs can cause immediate issues like headaches, dizziness, and irritation. Long-term health impacts include liver and kidney damage, as well as damage to the central nervous system according to the EPA.[26] There is also a concern for a potential impact on air quality during the remediation process, where disruption of sludge and soil could release contaminants into the air.[27] There are many pathways of contamination, and it is important for all of it to be contaminated on site.

The same 1990 health assessment by the US Public Health Service concluded that it was impossible to tell long term health effects.[28] The disposal of chemical wastes in unlined on-site lagoons beginning in the mid-1930s likely resulted in decades of groundwater contamination at the time, yet meaningful regulatory intervention did not occur for approximately 45 years. During this time surrounding communities like Bound Brook were potentially exposed to hazardous substances without monitoring, warning, or protection, and the public health consequences of this prolonged exposure remains undocumented. Although later remediation measures reduced off site contaminant migrations, these came only after extensive environmental damage had already been done. The delayed regulatory response and absence of comprehensive health studies reflect a broader pattern of environmental injustice, in which working-class communities bore the risks of industrial pollution while not being informed and having some way of protecting themselves. Unfortunately, through my research, it appears that there are still no conclusive studies on the long-term health or exposure levels of past or current residents of Bound Brook, and that is likely to remain the case for a while.

V. Community and Government Response

All over the US, including in Bound Brook and Bridgewater, the public and government had a collective great awakening in the 1960s with the publication of Silent Spring by biologist Rachel Carson. [29] It is frequently credited with the start of environmentalism and the “unparalleled argument for the interconnectedness of ecological and human health”.[30] This period saw the greatest advances by government to radically change American air and water for the better. The creation of the EPA is another achievement of this movement as well.[31] Chemical companies, presumably including American Cyanamid, were not happy. Through the 50s to 70s, the local community voiced their concerns over odor, the river’s color, and impacts on local wildlife, prompting a stronger emphasis on waste treatment. Waste stopped being dumped into the Raritan as late as 1985.[32] It is safe to assume that if it weren’t for residents’ push back, American Cyanamid and others would have kept dumping waste wherever they saw fit.

Residents weren’t the only people making their voices heard. Workers within the plant were displeased with their working conditions. This culminated in December of 1978 when 1300 chemical union workers went on strike, citing pay raises and better benefits. Health and safety were a major issue too, as they were constantly exposed to toxic dust, fumes, and loud noise.[33] They demanded transparency, accusing American Cyanamid of covering up health risks. The president of the International Chemical Workers Local 111 union, Donald Lore, stated: “All we’re asking is that if you’re working with something that can harm you twenty years from now, we want to know about it”. [34] Some workers reported “lung abnormalities” and even contracting some form of cancer.[35] As it turned out, there were 15 cases of bladder cancer among plant workers confirmed by a report by medical students from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine.[36] Still, American Cyanamid denied any link between workplace exposure and their symptoms. OSHA did end up fining the company $6000 for safety violations, suggesting laughably weak enforcement. Eldon Knape, the plant manager at the time, dismissed the strike: “We really don’t run a health spa,” showing little care for what’s at stake for his workers.[37] Despite their protests, the company continued operations with replacement workers and obtained a court injunction, limiting picketing to weaken the strike.[38] This story ends on a much brighter tone. After 52 days of striking, American Cyanamid agreed to notify workers of new health problems, share results of environmental testing for toxic fumes, noise levels, and gases, and finally disclose the generic names of the chemicals used in everyday production. They must also train them on safe handling of these chemicals to protect their health.[39] All in all this was a massive win for these chemical workers who were early victims of direct chemical exposure. This victory is reflective of labor pressure forcing a company to be transparent and not taking voluntary responsibility. The same secrecy and minimization that affected workers mirrors how communities like Bound Brook were treated regarding pollution and contamination.

The 1980s and 1990s were a particularly turbulent time for the community. Industry was on the decline and did everything possible to paint themselves in a better light. Public sentiment by this time, however, was eager for change, but they wanted it done right. In 1987 American Cyanamid proposed an onsite incinerator to the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP), drawing outrage from Bridgewater residents. This led them to found the watchdog group CRISIS (Concerned Residents Involved with Stopping Incinerators). Indeed, they, along with other leaders within the community, were successful in stopping the incinerator from being built through various meetings.[40] This wasn’t the only victory for CRISIS either. Another way that CRISIS was successful in checking the power of regulatory authorities came much later in 2012.  Testing six years prior in 2006 revealed benzene contamination that far exceeded federal safety standards in the Raritan River downstream of the former American Cyanamid site. Yet state and federal agencies failed to disclose this information to the public and claimed to be unaware of it. CRISIS was not afraid to allege that the information was withheld intentionally, or that it was blatant bureaucratic failure. [41] Either way, the public was not informed about dangerous levels of a carcinogen in the Raritan, reinforcing serious concerns about oversight, transparency, and long-term exposure risks. CRISIS stands as a valuable asset to the community, and it has been their mission since to put the interests of the community above all else.

Today, remediation remains contested and potentially hazardous. In 2020, Pfizer’s began to excavate and planned to transport nearly 45,000 tons of highly combustible acid tar from impoundments 1 and 2.[42] Environmental watchdogs warned that disturbing this chemically volatile sludge could trigger explosions, release toxic emissions, or potentially contaminate the Raritan River during floods. Still, other alternatives involve keeping the contamination on site and capping it or, yet again, talks about a proposed incinerator. There is no clear consensus on the best way to proceed with the cleanup. Some see the current removal as a sort of inevitable lesser of two evils to get the toxins out of the floodplain while others view the thousands of truck trips carrying tons of waste through public street a disaster waiting to happen. What is certain is that the longer the waste remains, the longer Bound Brook risks exposure.

VI. Conclusion

On that humid summer afternoon in the mid-1930s, the boys who waded into the Raritan River near Bound Brook to cool off were unaware of the chemical waste being released upstream. At the time, the nearby plant was simply something parents warned their children about and not a clearly understood danger. After examining the history of American Cyanamid, that moment takes on a new meaning. It reflects how environmental risks became a normal part of daily life in a working-class community that lived alongside a powerful chemical company.

For decades American Cyanamid disposed of chemical waste in lagoons, allowing pollution to seep into the soil, groundwater, and the Raritan River nearby. These practices occurred with little oversight and meaningful change came only after environmental damage had already accumulated over decades. The plant’s location in a floodplain further worsened the health risks posed to the public, as repeat storms carried contaminants beyond the site. Even after the Superfund designation in the 1980s, cleanup efforts have been slow due to the complexity of certain impoundments within the site. Strategies have also largely been contested, and Bound Brook and surrounding neighborhoods continue to face exposure.

The long-term health consequences of this contamination remain uncertain because the risks were never fully studied. Residents and workers were exposed to substances now known to be carcinogenic without clear warnings or protection. Regulatory agencies sometimes failed to act decisively or communicate risks. This was seen through delayed enforcement, weak fines, and the withholding of contamination data. The burden of all this regulatory failure fell most heavily on Bound Brook, a working class and mostly Latino community with limited political power, reinforcing patterns of environmental injustice seen throughout the United States.

The legacy of the American Cyanamid site shows that environmental harm is the result of long periods of neglect, secrecy, and unchecked power. Bound Brook was treated as a sacrifice zone where pollution was tolerated if it supported economic growth elsewhere. Today, as cleanup efforts continue and flooding is projected to grow more severe due to climate change, this legacy remains unresolved. Environmental harm does not end when a factory closes for good. It lingers. Without transparency and accountability, communities like Bound Brook are left to live with uncertainty, even long after pollution has faded from eyes and minds of those who live there.

Endnotes

[1] Sensationalized from “Calco—Bridgewater’s Forgotten Award Winning War Production Plant.” Raritan Online. Accessed December 8, 2025. http://www.raritan-online.com/calco.pdf.

[2] “Calco—Bridgewater’s Forgotten Award Winning War Production Plant.” Raritan Online.

[3] Bound Brook, NJ Board of Trade, Bound Brook, The Place to Dwell (New York: The Nation Press, 1909), pages 66-67, https://archive.org/details/boundbrookplacet00boun.

[4] Anthony S. Travis, Dyes Made in America, 1915 – 1980: The Calco Chemical Company, American Cyanamid, and the Raritan River (Jerusalem: The Hexagon Press, 2004), page 25, https://archive.org/details/dyesmadeinameric0000trav.

[5] Travis, 39

[6] “Calco—Bridgewater’s Forgotten Award Winning War Production Plant.” Raritan Online. Accessed December 8, 2025. http://www.raritan-online.com/calco.pdf.

[7] Anthony S. Travis, Dyes Made in America, 1915 – 1980: The Calco Chemical Company, American Cyanamid, and the Raritan River (Jerusalem: The Hexagon Press, 2004), page 25, https://archive.org/details/dyesmadeinameric0000trav.

[8] Travis, 28

[9] “Calco—Bridgewater’s Forgotten Award Winning War Production Plant.” Raritan Online. Accessed December 16, 2025. http://www.raritan-online.com/calco.pdf.

[10] “Bound Brook, NJ”, Data USA, accessed December 16, 2025, datausa.io/profile/geo/bound-brook-nj

[11] Barry Ableman, “Plan Endorsement Recommendation Report Borough of Bound Brook”, nj.gov, New Jersey Department of State Office of Planning Advocacy, February 15, 2023, https://nj.gov/state/bac/planning/documents/meeting-materials/pic-materials-2023-0215-Bound-Brook-Recomendation-Report-PIC-2-10-23.pdf.

[12] Anthony S. Travis, Dyes Made in America, 1915 – 1980: The Calco Chemical Company, American Cyanamid, and the Raritan River (Jerusalem: The Hexagon Press, 2004), page 357, https://archive.org/details/dyesmadeinameric0000trav.

[13] “Calco—Bridgewater’s Forgotten Award Winning War Production Plant.” Raritan Online. Accessed December 8, 2025. http://www.raritan-online.com/calco.pdf.

[14] “American Cyanamid NPL Site,” U.S. Department of the Interior, accessed December 16, 2025, https://www.cerc.usgs.gov/orda_docs/CaseDetails?ID=1106#:~:text=Case%20Description,%2C%20cyanide%2C%20and%20heavy%20metals.

[15] Anthony S. Travis, Dyes Made in America, 1915 – 1980: The Calco Chemical Company, American Cyanamid, and the Raritan River (Jerusalem: The Hexagon Press, 2004), page 10, https://archive.org/details/dyesmadeinameric0000trav.

[16] “Calco—Bridgewater’s Forgotten Award Winning War Production Plant.” Raritan Online. Accessed December 16, 2025. http://www.raritan-online.com/calco.pdf.

[17] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry U.S. Public Health Service “Health Assessment for American Cyanamid Company,” nj.gov, August 03, 1990, https://www.nj.gov/health/ceohs/documents/eohap/haz_sites/somerset/bridgewater_twp/american_cyan/amcyan_ha_8_90.pdf?.

[18] “American Cyanamid NPL Site,” U.S. Department of the Interior, accessed December 16, 2025, https://www.cerc.usgs.gov/orda_docs/CaseDetails?ID=1106#:~:text=Case%20Description,%2C%20cyanide%2C%20and%20heavy%20metals.

[19] “Impoundments 1 + 2 Page,” CRISIS, accessed December 16, 2025, https://crisistoxicwatch.org/impoundments12.html and “Using Science and Technology to Clean Up the American Cyanamid Superfund Site” (Google Slides, CRISIS, Bridgewater, New Jersey), https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1XJwdj8_Fmw4CPzUbDeBzuUu1CgU6U0sLsomGRTNGPPc/edit?slide=id.p1#slide=id.p1

[20] “American Cyanamid Co Bridgewater, NJ,” United States Environmental Protection Agency, accessed December 16, 2025, https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/SiteProfiles/index.cfm?fuseaction=second.Cleanup&id=0200144#bkground

[21] “American Cyanamid Co Bridgewater, NJ”

[22] “American Cyanamid Co Bridgewater, NJ”

[23] “Climate Adaptation Profile: American Cyanamid Co.,” United States Environmental Protection Agency, accessed December 17, 2025, https://www.epa.gov/superfund/climate-adaptation-profile-american-cyanamid

[24] “American Cyanamid Superfund Site,” nj.gov, December, 2011, https://www.nj.gov/dep/srp/community/sites/pi/american_cyanamid_fs.pdf

[25] Jonathan D. Salant, “Widespread Flooding Found at Superfund Site After Ida Storms Hit,” Last modified February 16, 2023, https://www.nj.com/weather/2021/09/nj-weather-widespread-flooding-found-at-nj-superfund-site-after-ida-storms-hit.html

[26] “Volatile Organic Compounds’ Impact on Indoor Air Quality,” United States Environmental Protection Agency, accessed December 17, 2025, https://www.epa.gov/indoor-air-quality-iaq/volatile-organic-compounds-impact-indoor-air-quality

[27] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry U.S. Public Health Service “Health Assessment for American Cyanamid Company,” nj.gov, August 03, 1990, https://www.nj.gov/health/ceohs/documents/eohap/haz_sites/somerset/bridgewater_twp/american_cyan/amcyan_ha_8_90.pdf?.

[28]  “Health Assessment for American Cyanamid Company”

[29] Anthony S. Travis, Dyes Made in America, 1915 – 1980: The Calco Chemical Company, American Cyanamid, and the Raritan River (Jerusalem: The Hexagon Press, 2004), page 357, https://archive.org/details/dyesmadeinameric0000trav.

[30] Joseph L. Locke and Ben Wright, “The Sixties,” in The American Yawp (Stanford University Press, 2023) https://www.americanyawp.com/text/27-the-sixties/

[31] “The Sixties,” in The American Yawp

[32] “American Cyanamid NPL Site,” U.S. Department of the Interior, accessed December 17, 2025, https://www.cerc.usgs.gov/orda_docs/CaseDetails?ID=1106#:~:text=Case%20Description,%2C%20cyanide%2C%20and%20heavy%20metals.

[33] “N.J. Chemical Workers Reject Wage Guidelines,” Militant, Dec. 22, 1978. https://www.themilitant.com/1978/4248/MIL4248.pdf?.

[34] “N.J. Chemical Workers Reject Wage Guidelines”

[35] “N.J. Chemical Workers Reject Wage Guidelines”

[36] “Dispute Over Occupational Risks Keeps Cyanamid Factory Closed,” New York Times, Jan. 14, 1979. https://www.nytimes.com/1979/01/14/archives/dispute-over-occupational-risks-keeps-cyanamid-factory-closed-union.html

[37] “Dispute Over Occupational Risks Keeps Cyanamid Factory Closed,”

[38] “N.J. Chemical Workers Reject Wage Guidelines,” Militant, Dec. 22, 1978. https://www.themilitant.com/1978/4248/MIL4248.pdf?.

[39] “The Region”, New York Times, Jan. 26, 1979. https://www.nytimes.com/1979/01/26/archives/the-region-cyanamid-strike-ends-after-52-days.html

[40] Anthony S. Travis, Dyes Made in America, 1915 – 1980: The Calco Chemical Company, American Cyanamid, and the Raritan River (Jerusalem: The Hexagon Press, 2004), page 446-447, https://archive.org/details/dyesmadeinameric0000trav.

[41] Warren Cooper, “Monitoring Agency Says EPA Failed to Share Reports of Raritan River Benzene Contamination Near American Cyanamid Superfund Site in Bridgewater,” last modified February 13, 2012, https://www.nj.com/messenger-gazette/2012/02/monitoring_agency_says_epa_failed_to_share_reports_of_raritan_river_benzene_contamination_near_ameri.html

[42] Chris Glorioso and Evan Stulberger “Controversial Cleanup: Could ‘Acid Tar’ Explode at NJ Toxic Chemical Dump Site?,” last modified August 25, 2020, https://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/controversial-cleanup-could-acid-tar-explode-at-nj-toxic-chemical-dump-site/2585192/?amp.

Primary Sources: