Section One: Introduction

Mirror Lake was once considered the hidden jewel of central New Jersey. Families, doctors, ambitious travelers from far and wide would all gravitate towards Mirror Lake with a sense of anticipation—of hope. In droves people settled alongside the lake, drawn by its supposed magical healing properties. As they stood at the water’s edge, looking into the crystal clear reflection, they saw more than just the beautiful scenery—they saw salvation in the water, a way to rescue their loved ones from the grip of fatal tuberculosis and asthma. Soon, the community would grow wide enough to receive its name: Brown Mills. Few could have imagined that over a century later, in 2016, the same waters associated with healing and hope would be rotted with poisonous chemicals due to a nearby military base, Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst (JBMDL). The grand 40,000-acre installation meant to protect Americans instead left surrounding communities exposed to toxic contamination, slowly killing the environment, and the people who live their lives around it.

The contamination of nearby lakes that ultimately funnel into Mirror Lake reflect the broader and darker history of military presence in central New Jersey and the communities that have been subjected to the development of JBMDL. As the base expanded over time, nearby towns like Brown Mills increasingly relied on its existence for economic stability, employment and community growth. However, this dependence has exposed residents to serious environmental and health related chemical leaks tied to long term military operations. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) connected to firefighting foam used on the base eventually spread into nearby groundwater, waterways and drinking systems surrounding Brown Mills. This contamination represents more than just a single event of environmental damage—it reveals how communities built around large federal institutions become vulnerable to the same systems they depend on for survival.

This paper will ask how the expansion of JBMDL has contributed to environmental contamination in Brown Mills and surrounding communities, how PFAS infested foam has spread into local groundwater, and why nearby residents remain economically dependent on the base despite the growing health and environmental concerns it continues to perpetuate. It also examines whether the contamination is part of a greater social and economic issue within the community. It will investigate the legal and political response to contamination by questioning whether the state of New Jersey pursued legal action with justice for its residents or institutional reimbursement in mind. This paper argues that the continued expansion of JBMDL created a system in which neighboring communities, like Brown Mills, became economically reliant on the base while simultaneously becoming environmentally and legally vulnerable to the long term consequences of federal negligence. 

I will first examine how the growth of JBMDL has led to increasing economic dependence in the surrounding communities, particularly in areas like Brown Mills, New Jersey. Then, I will analyze the spread of PFAS contamination found in ground water and waterways between 2016-2025, along with the environmental, social and health related concerns that followed afterwards. Finally, I will focus on the legal and political response to the contamination, including lawsuits involving both private and public entities, while evaluating whether these actions prioritized residents or governmental interests.

Section II: Historical Background

JBMDL did not begin as one of the United States’ major military hubs, but instead developed over time through a series of global conflicts and evolving strategic needs. Established in 1917, Camp Dix was one of thirteen training camps during World War I, focused on recruiting and preparing Northeastern soldiers for deployment and—when the war ended—reintegration.1 Simultaneously, Camp Kendrick, later known as Lakehurst, supported this ongoing training operations as a naval aviation hub.2 As Camp Dix expanded so did their mobilization efforts—resulting in a section of the camp focused on aviation. This culmination of strategic and constant effort resulted in it earning the nickname: “The Gateway to the East.”3 Its importance remained constantly and repeatedly praise, from World War II through the Cold War, the Vietnam War,4 and even recent conflicts in Iraq and Syria.5 This eventually led to the consolidation of Fort Dix, McGuire Air Force Base, and Lakehurst Naval Air Engineering Station through the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) process into what is now the Joint Base we know today.6 Over more than a century of service, the base has been nationally recognized as a cornerstone of military readiness and continued federal support.7 Beyond combat, JBMDL has played a vital role in humanitarian assistance and disaster relief as well as international humanitarian missions like the Ebola outbreak in West Africa,8 reinforcing its importance not only in military operations but also in rapid global response efforts. 

This long standing military presence has not only shaped national defense but has also had a lasting impact on the local communities surrounding the base, specifically Brown Mills, New Jersey. Brown Mills, an incorporated community of Pemberton Township, developed alongside the base with its origins tracing back to the early 1900s when all kinds of people began to travel towards Mirror Lake which was believed to have “homeopathic minerals”9 that could treat respiratory illnesses such as tuberculosis, asthma and pulmonary diseases.10 At the same time the military bought land in Brown Mills for the expansion of Camp Dix11 and by the 1930s the downtown area was bustling with restaurants, retail stores, and entertainment venues.12 Brown Mills was a relaxing destination for people trying to get away from the hustle and bustle of the city and those who had the luxury of living there all year round were often military personnel or the children of those individuals.13 As decades passed budgeting shifted from tourism to schools and community facilities supporting residents,who were Fort Dix trainees. Yet, by the late 20th century, military families stopped settling in the community, favoring larger chain shopping areas in nearby towns.14 The local economy declined as BRAC reduced personnel and added on-base amenities, limiting interaction with the town.15 As a result, Brown Mills transformed from a once thriving community into one associated with crime and economic decline.16 Despite this, residents who still have hope in Brown Mills look to the base as a source of potential employment and revitalization.

These unfortunate series of events are reflected in the town’s present population makeup.

With a total population of less than 10,000 residents,17 the area has a stable residential base and many socioeconomic indicators suggest persisting problems. The community finds itself in the 57th percentile of low income individuals in the United States, making them 1.0 times poorer than the rest of the country, 11% of households finding themselves below the poverty level.18 This economic disparity is further reflected in the employment data, as unemployment rates are 1.6 times higher than the national average, placing the community in the 78th percentile nationally.19 Educational attainment is lower than the average, as Brown Mills is ranked in the 70th percentile of persons without high school diplomas.20 The population also finds themselves at a disadvantage with age disparity, as residents over the age of 64 are reportedly 1.1 times more present in this community than nationally.21 In terms of health, the community has a disability rate that is 1.4 times higher than national average and a life expectancy that is 1.3 times lower.22

Though the history of JBMDL is extensive and its hand in local communities affairs widely recognized, more recent attention has focused on concerns regarding its impact on neighboring areas, particularly in relation to environmental management and handling of toxic substances. Scientific studies and local news have confirmed that PFAS, toxic “forever chemicals”, have been linked to the bases’ use of firefighting foam. Contaminating groundwater, surface water and even the drinking water of local areas.23 In addition to environmental concerns, scrutiny has extended to the use of military installations for purposes beyond defense operations, including the management of immigration detention. These issues reveal a growing contrast between the base’s historical reputation and the increasingly complex challenges associated with its modern operations and mishandling.

Section III: Environmental Contamination and PFAS Exposure

The spread of toxic PFAS was a long and avoidable process. In 2016, officals at JBMDL were mandated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to observe the conditions in local water wells and ground water inside of the base for Aqueous Film Forming Foam (AFFF) contamination.24 AFFF had been utilized by the United States’ military since the late 1960s, making it the primary foam used for firefighting drills on military bases nationally.25 Even after the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company (3M), one of the main manufactures of AFFF,26 began phasing out PFAS-based chemicals used in AFFF in 2000 due to growing health concerns over PFAS connection to environmental and health complications, the United States Military continued using the foam years after.27 When tested, wells closest to the firefighting training zone came back with combined PFOS and PFOA levels of over 200,000 parts per trillion (ppt)28 when the EPA’s health advisory level at the time was only 70 ppt and the state of New Jersey’s was only 10-14 ppt, making it thousands of times higher than what was considered safe.29 In response to these findings JBMDL began expanding testing beyond the base and shut down contaminated wells, focusing on identifying the extent of the contamination and if it branched out to surrounding communities.

As testing beyond the base continued, it was discovered that PFAS contamination had found its way into nearby drinking sources, meaning that the pollution has been moving though residential ground water systems.30 This caused officials to look into surface and ground water contamination in local waterways and lakes, specifically Pine Lake and Little Pine Lake, which both funnel into Mirror Lake.31 By January 2019, researchers confirmed the contamination showed about 279.5 ppt of PFAS in the surface water.32 They later found that local fish species, such as bass and sunfish, contained a level of PFAS in their tissue, meaning that the aquatic food chain had already succumbed to the contamination.33 Due to PFAS being known as “forever chemicals,” meaning they do not easily break down in either the environment or living organism, this led to a bioaccumulation, where the chemicals will continue to build up in organisms long after the time of contamination.34  Though efforts soon began to be made to remediate and cap the spread of contamination, it could not undo the physical damage that nearby citizens might have been exposed to due to the leak of PFAS related chemicals.

Due to its proximity to both Pine Lake and Little Pine Lake, residents of Brown Mills face increased risk of health complications.35 When exposed to high levels of PFAS for an extended period of time, the human body accumulates these toxic chemicals breaking them down.36 Studies have also associated PFAS exposure to developmental issues in infants, including early growth and immune system development.37 Adults who face this kind of exposure might suffer from high cholesterol, thyroid disruption and negatively impacted liver and metabolic states.38 What is most concerning about PFAS exposure is its heightened risk of cancer. The National Institute of Health (NIH) reports that PFAS exposure, particularly through contaminated drinking water, is estimated to contribute up to 4,600 to 6,800 additional cancer cases per year.39 The study suggests that one might be at risk of all types of cancer but specifically “oral cavity/pharynx, lung, digestive system, brain, urinary system, soft tissue, and thyroid.” 40 The citizens of Brown Mills and those surrounding the area find themselves at an increased health risk due to the base next door that, instead of protecting them, has slowly poisoned them and their loved ones. 

This is not the first time something like this has occurred at JBMDL; the base has repeatedly had incidents regarding contaminations and leaks. Decades ago, before the military bases merged into one, certain ones had been leaked to contaminations regarding fuel leaks, hazardous waste disposal and groundwater pollution. In 1982, Fort Dix was investigated by the EPA and was found to have contaminated local ground water and surrounding areas, specifically around the community of Wrightstown.41 These contaminants included volatile organic compounds (VOCs), pesticides, heavy metals, industrial solvents and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).42 This stemmed from the former landfill on Fort Dix, which was placed on the EPA’s National Priorities List in 1987 after decades of improper waste disposal contaminated nearby soil and water ways.43 These cleanup efforts are still ongoing today.44 There seems to be a continued cycle of contamination highlighting environmental oversight from the military in JBMDL, as nearby communities like Brown Mills and Wrightstown continue to face long term impacts. It raises the question of why these patterns persist and what structural forces allow them to continue poisoning residents.

Section V: Economic and Social Inequality

The community of  Brown Mills is still greatly dependent on JBMDL for economic stability. Residents rely on the base for business, employment and local stability. This has created a dependency that makes it difficult for surrounding towns to challenge or distance themselves from the harm that base causes. JBMDL has generated over $6.9 billion dollars each year and provided more than 60,000 jobs in local communities.45 These communities, especially Brown Mills, are aware of the economic advantages and disadvantages the base ensures and shape their livelihoods around it. An example of this was seen in 2018, when the military made a proposal regarding school district realignment, which could have resulted in the loss of approximately 160 students from the Pemberton School District, reducing the state aid by over $2.8 million.46 In response, district officials emphasized that there needs to be an increase in residential developments like housing, to entice military families with school aged children to invest in Brown Mills.47 Even the infrastructure of the community is built around military presence. Like those made following the terrorist attack on September 11th, 2001, where redirected traffic routes resulted in less foot traffic in the town’s shopping area, placing additional strain on local businesses in those areas.48 Brown Mills’ economic conditions, infrastructure and public institutions all reveal a community whose growth relies on the nearby military installations’ needs. 

This long-standing dependence has effectively shaped how residents perceive the installation, making it difficult to look at the base with anger and resentment when it has played such a crucial role in their livelihoods. In NJ Spotlight News, residents were interviewed in 2024, after being explained the extent of PFAS contamination that was found in local ground water. Despite acknowledging the health risks brought upon by the base, most residents either were seemingly unconcerned to the information or even lenient of the base, one woman stating “it’s nice to feel safe living next to the base—it always makes a person feel safe…it’s a catch 22.”49 Even when confronted with the possibility that nearby contamination will most likely bring about serious health issues for not only them but their families, many residents continue to see the base’s presence as beneficial for the community. Beyond this sense of reliance and safety from JBMDL, this perception could be tied to the residents’ inability to push back. Lower income communities like Brown Mills often lack the financial resources, political influences, and legal support that are necessary to challenge large federal institutions like JBMDL. This makes it harder to translate concern into meaningful action, especially when so much of the local economy remains tied to the base’s continued operation.

Section VI: Legal Intervention and Legislative Loopholes

Despite residents’ limited ability and possible urge in taking direct action against JBMDL, the state of New Jersey has taken it upon itself to pursue major legal action against both the federal government and the manufacturers of AFFF for the environmental harm that has resulted. In 2019, New Jersey filed a liability claim against the manufactures of the AFFF for its defective design and failure in properly warning the state of the risks associated with PFAS contamination.50 The state argued that the creators and distributors of AFFF “knew full well the health and environmental risks associated with this foam, and yet they sold it to New Jersey’s firefighters anyways.”51 In response to these claims most companies chose very large settlements rather than going to trial. In 2025, 3M reached a settlement with the state of $450 thousand.52 Companies such as DuPont, Corteva, and Chemours followed suit, paying New Jersey roughly $875 million to aid with cleanup efforts—making it the largest settlement ever won by a state.53 However, while corporations were eventually willing to settle through civil litigation, pursuing accountability from the federal government presents a far more difficult legal battle, bringing into question just how environmental responsibility is distributed between private companies and federal entities. 

After more information was gathered on the extent of the PFAS contamination in 2021, the state of New Jersey pursued legal action against the federal government, arguing that its continued use and mishandling of AFFF constituted negligence and created a public nuisance for surrounding communities.54 New Jersey is seeking natural resource damages, funding for the remediation of natural resources, the investigation of contaminated sites, and medical monitoring for affected residents.55 The case is yet to go to trial and unlikely to be resolved though settlements, making its potential outcome dependent on broader patterns in similar federal litigation. In many cases, attorneys use the 1946 Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA),56 but claims are often dismissed with the use of loopholes and technicalities in the Discretionary Function Exception (DFE) (28 U.S.C. § 2680(a)).57 The DFE protects the government from liability from actions involving policy-based discretion.58 This exception applied even when conduct is alleged to be negligent, covering decisions that are “based upon the exercise or performance or the failure to exercise or perform a discretionary function or duty on the part of a federal agency or an employee of the Government, whether or not the discretion involved be abused.”59 As a result, cases involving this exception face a high dismissal rate, with roughly 75% being dismissed with the use of DFE,60 underscoring the legal barriers New Jersey may face in holding the government accountable. 

If choosing to sue, residents of Brown Mills and surrounding areas face legal obstacles that can be seen in past military contamination cases, most notably Camp Lejeune. From the late 1950s to the 1980’s, military personnel, their spouses and children, and civil employees at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune were all exposed to contaminated water used for drinking and bathing.61 The victims of Camp Lejeune struggled in receiving reparations due to governmental protections found in the FTCA and the DFE, which effectively barred them from being able to present their case in court.62 After many long years of severe outrage, Congress passed the Lejeune Justice Act in 2022—over 35 years after the contamination.63 This law now allows for individuals to have their day in court in regards to any federal wrong doings they believe they might have been victim to,  which is definitely a step in the right direction. But, this law did not reopen old cases or guarantee a less demanding trial, on the contrary. If Brown Mills were to file a claim it would still be faced with proving governmental negligence and direct links between contamination and illnesses. Unlike Brown Mills, Camp Lejeune victims benefited from the amount of national political attention and organized veteran advocacy groups,64 which directly resulted in congressional legislation to legitimize their claims. While these two cases are similar in contamination they differ greatly in access to justice, showing how environmental victims are only recognized after constant political pressure and insurmountable evidence.

The main challenge in New Jersey’s claim is that the alleged negligence occurred while AFFF was being used nationally and recurrently by the U.S. military without any specific federal restrictions, making the contamination appear as more of a consequence to authorized activity rather than a clear legal violation. As of 2024, AFFF has already been phased out and replaced by fluorine-free foam (F3),65 but New Jersey may still be able to strengthen its legal standing. If the state were to focus less on past compliance and more on ongoing environmental effects it could benefit from the legal repercussions in statutes like the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) which don’t focus heavily on fault but remediation. These two acts would allow for cleanup cost and liability based on environmental impacts to be placed in the federal government’s hands and, most importantly, on their dime.66

Yet, even if the state of New Jersey is able to secure substantial financial compensation from private companies and potentially receive funded cleanup efforts from the federal government, it still raises a more jarring question: what exactly do the residents of places like Brown Mills receive in return for the harm they have endured, especially when they lack financial resources and legal support to advocate for themselves.While state-level recoveries may fund remediation efforts, they don’t directly compensate the individuals now living with long-term health risks, environmental breaches or property degradation. The very few avenues of relief—private litigation or federal claims following those of Camp Lejeune—remain financially draining and extremely slow moving. As a result, even the new legal pathways are still limited and uncertain. This gap between the federal government, the state of New Jersey, and the low income community of Brown Mills, highlight a broader legal imbalance in environmental justice, where accountability seems to be distributed unevenly and those most affected by contamination often have the least direct access to compensation, both legally and financially. 

Section VII: Conclusion

More than a century ago, droves of people traveled to Mirror Lake fully believing its waters could heal the sick and offer hope to those in the fight of respiratory illness like tuberculosis and asthma. The waterways that were once used to symbolize health and opportunity for the growing community of Brown Mills eventually became victim to PFAS contamination after decades of nearby military activity at JBMDL. The poisoning of lakes connecting to Mirror Lake, reflect a broader pattern of environmental harm tied to federal operations—operations that disproportionately affect lower income communities that have no choice but to be economically dependent on the base next door. Although lawsuits and state responses attempted to address the contamination, questions surrounding accountability and long term public health remain to be answered. The pollution surrounding JBMDL demonstrates how communities that are economically reliant on federal institutions can easily become legally and environmentally vulnerable to the systems set in place to protect them.

The health implications of PFAS exposure only further reinforce the idea that contamination leaked from military bases is not being treated as an urgent public health crisis, nor is it being treated as a one time occurrence, it is seen as a manageable consequence of military operations. These “forever chemicals” have been linked to immune system damage, developmental issues, and increased risks of several cancers, yet their repeated presence in drinking water due to military installatinosFcreveals how normalized this type of exposure has become. When questioned about the AFFF contamination, one military official in JBMDL easily remarked that “it is a national issue. In fact, I would imagine there are very few bases that aren’t dealing with this.”67 Rather than expressing alarm, this calm and dismissive approach to the leak further shows how widespread contamination has become expected within military infrastructure. The recurrence of these incidents suggest that the federal government is aware of  the risks posed to nearby residents, yet they continue to operate with an understanding that the legal protections and institutional power set in place make meaningful accountability nearly impossible to achieve. As contamination persists across military bases nationwide, environmental harm is less about accidental negligence and more of the tolerated consequences of federally protected activity, leaving vulnerable communities to endure long term health effects while the government is largely shielded from accountability. 

The responsibility of the government should be to protect its citizens; that should take priority over funding international affairs or military training. Instead, cases like JBMDL reveal how citizens can easily become secondary to broader governmental and military interests, even in the face of public health risk. The overall health and safety of the American public should have to be subjected to harm in the name of governmental progression, especially in lower income communities that already lack the resources to defend themselves. Cases such as these expose major flaws in the US legal system, where loopholes and federal protection are set in place to let institutions remain unaccountable rather than prioritizing protections for its ordinary citizens. If environmental justice is truly meant to be applied equally, then these legal barriers and protections must be reexamined so affected communities have a direct path to justice, accountability and recovery.

Endnotes

1. Melly, Stephen G. “Camp Dix: 95 Years of Army Heritage.” Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, July 18, 2014. https://www.jbmdl.jb.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/826576/camp-dix-95-years-of-army-heritage/. 
2. Albee, F. H. “Navy History and Tradition Lives On at Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst.” Naval Air Systems Command. U.S. Department of the Navy, 2013. 
3. 2nd Lt. Leanne Caballer, “PCS Guide: Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst,” Goodfellow Air Force Base, February 7, 2012, https://www.goodfellow.af.mil/Newsroom/Article-Display/Article/375521/pcs-guide-joint-base-mcguire-dix-lakehurst/. 
4. Ibid.
5. “Your Weekly Address – President Barack Obama – December 13, 2014,” video, posted by WITN22, Internet Archive, accessed May 11, 2026, https://archive.org/details/witnde-Your_Weekly_Address_-_President_Barack_Obama_-_December_13_2014. 
6. Caballer, “PCS Guide: Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst”
7. Your Weekly Address (Obama, Dec. 13, 2024).
8. Ibid.
9. Ragan Design Group, Browns Mills Strategic Revitalization and Redevelopment Study, page 1, Pinelands Preservation Alliance, accessed May 11, 2026, https://pinelandsalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/browns-mills-revitalization-and-redevelopment-study-pgs-1-25.pdf. 
10. Ibid.
11. “History of Pemberton Township,” Pemberton Township, New Jersey, accessed May 11, 2026, https://www.pemberton-twp.com/how_do_i__/find_learn_about/general_information/history.php
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Ragan Design Group, Browns Mills Strategic Revitalization and Redevelopment Study.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. “Browns Mills, New Jersey,” World Population Review, accessed May 11, 2026, https://worldpopulationreview.com/us-cities/new-jersey/browns-mills. 
18. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EJScreen: Environmental Justice Screening and Mapping Tool, report for selected area (New Jersey coordinates near Browns Mills), accessed May 11, 2026, https://ejamapi-84652557241.us-central1.run.app/report?shape={%22type%22:%22FeatureCollection%22,%22features%22:[{%22type%22:%22Feature%22,%22properties%22:{},%22geometry%22:{%22coordinates%22:[[-74.56972,39.98987],[-74.57098,39.985275],[-74.572736,39.981446],[-74.573694,39.979182]],%22type%22:%22LineString%22}}]}&buffer=1
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. A.R. Fiore and S.J. Colarullo, “MODFLOW 6 and MODPATH7 Used to Simulate Regional Groundwater Flow and Advective Transport of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances, Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst and Vicinity, New Jersey, 2018,” U.S. Geological Survey Data Release, 2023,https://www.usgs.gov/data/modflow-6-and-modpath7-used-simulate-regional-groundwater-flow-and-advective-transport-and.
24. “AFFF Firefighting Foam: History, Usage, and Ever-Present Public Health Risks,” Keefe Law Firm, accessed May 11, 2026, https://keefe-lawfirm.com/blog/afff-firefighting-foam-history-usage-and-ever-present-public-health-risks/. 
25. Ibid.
26. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “EPA and 3M Announce Phase Out of PFOS,” May 16, 2000, https://www.epa.gov/archive/epapages/newsroom_archive/newsreleases/33aa946e6cb11f35852568e1005246b4.html. 
27. U.S. Department of Defense, “Updated Firefighting Foam Requirements,” Chemical & Engineering News, January 20, 2023, https://cen.acs.org/environment/persistent-pollutants/US-Department-Defense-updates-firefighting/101/i3. 
28. Jon Hurdle, “PFAS Levels at NJ Military Base 24,000 Times Higher Than Proposed Federal Standard, Study Says,” NJ Spotlight News, October 4, 2018, https://www.njspotlightnews.org/2018/10/18-10-04-pfas-levels-at-nj-base-24-000-times-higher-than-proposed-federal-standard-study-says/. 

29. Ibid.
30. Alex R. Fiore, Christopher M. Witzigman, and Robert G. Reiser, Hydrogeology and Gain/Loss Assessment of Two Lakes Contaminated with Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances, Vicinity of Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, New Jersey, 2020–21 (U.S. Geological Survey, 2023), 1. 
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Science, Research, and Environmental Health, Perfluorinated Compounds in New Jersey Fish, Surface Water, and Sediment (Trenton, NJ: NJDEP, 2018), 3, https://dep.nj.gov/wp-content/uploads/dsr/perfluorinated-compounds-nj-fish-surface-water-sediment-report-2018.pdf. 
34. Fiore, Witzigman, and Reiser, Hydrogeology and Gain/Loss Assessment of Two Lakes, 1. 
35. “AFFF Firefighting Foam,” Keefe Law Firm. 
36. Ibid.
37. Vladislav Obsekov, Linda G. Kahn, and Leonardo Trasande, “Leveraging Systematic Reviews to Explore Disease Burden and Costs of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substance Exposures in the United States,” Exposure and Health 15, no. 2 (2023): 373–94, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11785707/.
38. Janelle Weaver, “Cancer Cases Attributable to PFAS in Drinking Water Estimated,” Environmental Factor, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, February 2025, https://www.niehs.nih.gov/news/factor/2025/2/science-highlights/pfas-water-cancer 
39. Ibid.
40. Shiwen Li et al., “Associations between Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) and County-Level Cancer Incidence between 2016 and 2021 and Incident Cancer Burden Attributable to PFAS in Drinking Water in the United States,” Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 35, no. 3 (2025): 425–36, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ articles/PMC12069088/. 
41. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Fort Dix Military Reservation: Fact Sheet (Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2017), https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-08/documents/ftdix725.pdf 
42. Ibid., 6.
43. Ibid., 3.
44. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Hazardous Waste Cleanup: U.S. Army in Fort Dix, New Jersey,” accessed May 11, 2026, https://www.epa.gov/hwcorrectiveactioncleanups/hazardous-waste-cleanup-us-army-fort-dix-new-jersey. 
45. Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, “About Us,” accessed May 11, 2026, https://www.jbmdl.jb.mil/About-Us/About-Us/.
46. Ragan Design Group, Browns Mills Strategic Revitalization and Redevelopment Study (Pemberton Township, NJ: Ragan Design Group, 2010), 46, https://pinelandsalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/browns-mills-revitalization-and-redevelopment-study-pgs-26-55.pdf.
47. Ibid., 41.
48. Ibid., 33.
49. NJ Spotlight News, “’Forever Chemicals’ Near Joint Base Raise Immediate Worries,” YouTube video, June 13, 2024, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=keAqY6V10lw&t=71s, 1:11–2:05. 
50. Office of the Attorney General of New Jersey, “Attorney General Grewal Announces Actions to Protect New Jerseyans from Harmful PFAS Chemicals,” May 14, 2019, https://www.nj.gov/oag/newsreleases19/pr20190514b.html. 
51. Ibid.
52. Hiroko Tabuchi, “New Jersey Reaches Major Settlement Over ‘Forever Chemicals’ Contamination,” The New York Times, August 4, 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2025/08/04/climate/new-jersey-pfas-settlement.html. 
53. Ibid.
54. State of New Jersey, Office of the Attorney General, “AG Grewal, DEP Announce Lawsuit Against U.S. Government over Drinking Water Contamination from Military Bases’ Use of Firefighting Foam,” press release, January 14, 2021, https://www.njoag.gov/ag-grewal-dep-announce-lawsuit-against-u-s-government-over-drinking-water-contamination-from-military-bases-use-of-firefighting-foam/.
55. Ibid.
56. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Tort Claims Act (FTCA), https://www.epa.gov/ogc/federal-tort-claims-act-ftca. 
57. U.S. Courts, Federal Judicial Center, “Tort Claims Against the United States,” Federal Judicial Center, accessed May 11, 2026, https://www.fjc.gov/history/spotlight-judicial-history/tort-claims-against-united-states. 
58. Idle.
59. Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School, “28 U.S. Code § 2680 – Exceptions,” U.S. Code, accessed May 11, 2026, https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/2680. 
60. Bureau of Justice Statistics, Federal Tort Trials and Verdicts, 1997 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 1999), https://bjs.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh236/files/media/document/fttv97.pdf. 
61. The Higgins Firm, “Understanding the Camp Lejeune Litigation,” The Higgins Firm, accessed May 11, 2026, https://www.thehigginsfirm.com/understanding-the-camp-lejeune-litigation/. 
62. Idle.
63. Idle.
64. Justice for Lejeune, “About,” Justice for Lejeune, accessed May 11, 2026, https://www.justiceforlejeune.org/about. 
65. U.S. Department of Defense, “Updated Firefighting Foam Requirements,” Chemical & Engineering News, Jan. 20, 2023.
66. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) and Federal Facilities,” EPA Enforcement, accessed May 12, 2026, https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/comprehensive-environmental-response-compensation-and-liability-act-cercla-and-federal. 
67. NJ Spotlight News, “Forever Chemicals Near Joint Base Raise Immediate Worries,” 2:31.

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